Treaty of Waitangi

Signed in 1840, the Treaty of Waitangi is an agreement between the British Crown and Maori. It established British law in New Zealand, while at the same time guaranteeing Maori authority over their land and culture. The Treaty is considered New Zealand’s founding document. After Captain Cook’s exploration of New Zealand in the late 18^th century, an increasing number of settlers came to New Zealand. By 1839, there were an estimated 2,000 Pakeha (Europeans) living in New Zealand. In 1833, after increasing lawlessness amongst traders and settlers, the British government appointed James Busby as British Resident to protect British trading interests and counter the growing lawlessness. In 1835, the French were looking to trade and settle in New Zealand and had started to buy land. In response to this, the British Crown signed a Declaration of Independence with 34 northern Maori Chiefs. This declared New Zealand an independent state under British rule. It also stated that ‘no claim could be made on New Zealand without Maori agreement’. Despite Busby’s presence, lawlessness, and the number of dubious land sales to Pakeha, increased. The British Government decided there was a need for some effective rule in New Zealand. In 1840, they sent Captain William Hobson there as Lieutenant-Governor. His mission was to acquire the Sovereignty of New Zealand, by way of a treaty with the native Maori Chiefs. A treaty was drawn up and translated. After a day of debate, the Treaty of Waitangi was signed on February 6, 1840, at Waitangi in the Bay of Islands. Forty-three Northland Chiefs signed the treaty on that day. Over 500 Maori Chiefs signed it as it was taken around the country during the next eight months. The grounds and building where the treaty was signed have been preserved. Today, the Waitangi Historic Reserve is a popular tourist attraction. There is a large Maori meeting house, the colonial mission house, an historic flagstaff, as well as a very long waka taua (Maori war canoe). While most treaties and contracts signed by Britain and her colonies during these times have been forgotten, the Treaty of Waitangi remains central to New Zealand law and society. It is considered by many to be the country’s founding document. However, ever since its signing, the Treaty of Waitangi has presented many problems of interpretation. The English and Maori versions of the treaty both contain three articles. However, as the Treaty was written and translated by people with little or no legal experience, the Maori translation differs widely in interpretation from the English version. The first article covers sovereignty. The English version states that Maori give up their ‘kawanatanga’ (governorship or sovereignty) to the British Crown. However, while the English version describes a complete transference of power to the Crown, the Maori version implies a sharing of power. The second article concerns ‘tino rangatiratanga’ or chieftainship. The Maori version promises much broader rights for Maori in regard to possession of their existing ‘taonga’ (treasures). The English version gives Maori control over their lands, forests, fisheries, and other properties. But the Maori version, with its use of the word ‘taonga’, implies possession and protection of things such as language and culture. The third Article promises Maori the rights of all British subjects, while protecting traditional and customary rights. Although it is referred to as New Zealand’s ‘founding document’, many of the rights guaranteed to Maori in the document have been ignored. Despite the protection offered in the Treaty of Waitangi, Maori lost considerable amounts of land through the 19^th and 20^th centuries. The manner in which the land was lost was often questionable, and led to considerable protest from Maori. In 1975, the government established the Waitangi Tribunal. This tribunal was established to honour the treaty as a relevant and living document. Since then, the Waitangi Tribunal has ruled on a number of claims brought by Maori iwi (tribes). In many cases, compensation, often in the form of financial payments and land, has been granted. In the last ten years, some particularly large settlements have been made between the Government and major iwi, including Tainui of the Waikato, and Ngai Tahu of the South Island. Much of the compensation has been invested in order to provide educational and health services for members of the iwi. Which translation of the Treaty of Waitangi is the right one? Both. Because both versions are signed, the Waitangi Tribunal is instructed to have regard to both texts when making decisions.

History of New Zealand

New Zealand, is one of the most recently settled countries in the world. The first settlers were of Eastern Polynesian origin, and went to New Zealand, in a series of migrations, between 700 and 2000 years ago. Over a few centuries, these settlers, developed a culture now known as Maori.The country was divided into many different types of tribes, who would cooperate, compete and fight against each other.The first Europeans known to have reached New Zealand were Dutch explorer Abel Janszoon Tasman and his crew in 1642. Māori killed several of the crew and no Europeans returned to New Zealand until British explorer James Cook's voyage of 1768–71. Cook reached New Zealand in 1769 and mapped almost the entire coastline. Following Cook, New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling, sealing and trading ships. They traded European food and goods, especially metal tools and weapons, for Māori timber, food, artefacts and water. On occasion, Europeans traded goods for sex. The potato and the musket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare, although the resulting Musket Wars died out once the tribal imbalance of arms had been rectified. From the early nineteenth century, Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually converting most of the Māori population, who had become disillusioned with their indigenous faith by the introduction of Western culture. Becoming aware of the lawless nature of European settlement and increasing interest in the territory by the French, the British government sent William Hobson to New Zealand to claim sovereignty and negotiate a treaty with Māori. The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840. The drafting was done hastily and confusion and disagreement continues to surround the translation. The Treaty however remains regarded as New Zealand's foundation as a nation and is revered by Māori as a guarantee of their rights.

Initially under British rule, New Zealand had been part of the colony of New South Wales. Hobson initially selected Okiato as the capital in 1840, before moving the seat of government to Auckland in 1841, when New Zealand became a separate colony, and there were increasing numbers of European settlers to New Zealand particularly from the British Isles. At first, Māori were eager to trade with the 'Pakeha', as they called them, and many iwi (tribes) became wealthy. As settler numbers increased, conflicts over land led to the New Zealand Land Wars of the 1860s and 1870s, resulting in the loss of much Māori land. The detail of European settlement and the acquisition of land from Māori remain controversial.Representative government for the colony was provided for by the passing of the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 by the United Kingdom. The 1st New Zealand Parliament met in 1854. In 1856 the colony became effectively self-governing with the grant of responsible government over all domestic matters other than native policy. Power in this respect would be transferred to the colonial administration in the 1860s. In 1863 Premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution that the capital transfer to a locality in Cook Strait, apparently due to concern the South Island could form a separate colony. Commissioners from Australia (chosen for their neutral status) advised Wellington as suitable because of its harbour and central location, and parliament officially sat there for the first time in 1865. In 1893, the country became the first nation in the world to grant women the right to vote. In 1907, New Zealand became an independent Dominion and a fully independent nation in 1947 when the Statute of Westminster (1931) was ratified, although in practice Britain had ceased to play any real role in the government of New Zealand much earlier than this. As New Zealand became more politically independent it became more dependent economically; in the 1890s, refrigerated shipping allowed New Zealand to base its entire economy on the export of meat and dairy products to Britain.New Zealand was an enthusiastic member of the British Empire, fighting in the Boer War, World War I and World War II, especially in the Battle of Britain, and supporting Britain in the Suez Crisis. The country was very much a part of the world economy and suffered as others did in the Great Depression of the 1930s. The depression led to the election of the first Labour government, which established a comprehensive welfare state and a protectionist economy.New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following World War II. However, some social problems were developing; Māori had begun to move to the cities in search of work and excitement rather than the traditional rural way of life. A Māori protest movement would eventually form, criticising Eurocentrism and seeking more recognition of Māori culture and the Treaty of Waitangi, which they felt had not been fully honoured. In 1975 a Waitangi Tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty, and enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985. In common with all other developed countries, social developments accelerated in the 1970s and social and political mores changed. By the 1970s, the traditional trade with Britain was threatened because of Britain's membership of the European Economic Community. Great economic and social changes took place in the 1980s under the 4th Labour government largely led by Finance Minister Roger Douglas, and commonly referred to as "Rogernomics."

Soil Erosion in New Zealand

Once the whole of the two islands was covered with temperate forests, but with colonization by humans and the removal of these forests by slashing and burning, their replacement by clover and rye grass pasture gives the impression of a clean green land, and that everything is healthy.The picture above shows slips that have 'healed'. This whole area was once covered in thick temperate forest.The sheep have grazed the grass short and transformed the the hills into little terraces. The short grass means shallower root growth and less to hold the soil together.At each heavy rain they fill up rapidly bringing down soil and stone because the water is no longer held in the catchments to be released slowly afterwards.he sheep are dependent on the clover and rye grass, and the grass and rye grass grow mainly on the hill slopes of the hill country, from whence all the run off comes. Mass movement erosion – occurs when heavy rain or earthquakes cause whole slopes to slump, slip or landslide. Most hill slopes steeper than 15 degrees are susceptible to mass movement, and those steeper than 28 degrees generally have severe potential for erosion. Storms are the primary triggers. Mass movement also damages fences, tracks, drains and occasionally buildings. This is the most common form of erosion in the hill country.

• Fluvial erosion – occurs when running water gouges shallow channels or deeper gullies into the soil. On sloping land the gullies can cut deep into the subsoil or undermine surrounding soils. The sediment is washed into streams. Gullies do not cause much loss of crop or pasture but can disrupt stock and vehicle movement around farms. This is a common form of erosion on loessal soils such as those found in Marlborough and Manawatu.

• Surface erosion – occurs when wind, rain or frost detach soil particles from the surface, allowing them to be washed or blown off the paddock. Surface erosion can occur on any land that is exposed to wind and rain but occurs largely outside the hill country.

• Streambank erosion – is a special case of fluvial erosion that occurs when banks that have been cleared of tree cover become unstable.

Regions with hill country land prone to erosion include: Waikato, Bay of Plenty, Gisborne, Hawkes Bay, Taranaki, Manawatu-Wanganui, Wellington, Tasman and Marlborough. Together they have approximately 7,075,000 hectares at risk of erosion. 48% of that risk area is being farmed.

Decades of research and experience have provided, the New Zealand Department of Conservation, with techniques to reduce the impacts of erosion on pastoral land. These include:

• maintaining adequate vegetative cover (e.g. avoiding over-grazing and maintaining a dense pasture sward through regular applications of fertiliser and grass seed)

• spaced or close tree planting

• retiring land from pasture

• fencing off and planting river banks

• building debris dams to slow water flows in gullies.

The short-term costs of soil conservation to farmers include soil conservation work and possible loss of production when stock is excluded from newly established plantings. The major benefits include:

• avoided stock losses and extra income from timber

• recreational

• aesthetic benefits to people in the region either from improved landscape from conservation plantings or improvement and maintenance of water quality

• less disruption to road and rail links.

Biodiversity of New Zealand

Like Australia, New Zealand can be described as a biological ark. The reason for this is because the country is segregated from the rest of the world. Thus, many of the animal and plant species have evolved and adapted to New Zealand's unique climate and landscape. Unfortunately due to European influence, New Zealand's forestry has been destroyed and thus impacting upon the native flaura and fauna. Before European times, 80% of New Zealand’s land area was covered in forest. However,due to intensive farming and cultivation of the land, only about 23% of the land remains, most of which are national parks, forest parks and reserves.42.2% of New Zealand's 8,309,000 Ha of land is considered primary forest, this is considered the most form of forest. About 80% of New Zealand's flora is endemic, this includes 65 endemic genera. The two main types of forest are those dominated by podocarps and the giant kaori, and in cooler climates, the Southern Beech dominates. The Europeans introduced various pests to New Zealand including: possums, goats, pigs and deer. These animals trampled the forest (destroying small habitats for small animals and insects), eating new saplings and eating the leaves of growing trees. The introduced plants escaped into the forest and have become weeds. These plants smother trees, and carpet the floor to stop new native plants from growing. There are many groups such as ECO, Native Forest Action, and the Royal Forest and Bird Protection that hope to protect native fauna and flora.

Agriculture is another major problem in the reduction of biodiversity, in New Zealand. Many farms are located near wetland because of the constant supply of water and the nutrient rich soil. However, livestock such as cattle are destroying dense areas eg. disturbing wild life graze on/ trample wetland plains, eroding soil, carrying weed seeds in their hooves and the runoff of pesticides into the river source. Controlled fire is also destroying wetlands because many native vegetation grows in burn holes. Therefore animals will die because their food source can’t reproduce.

The “Environmental Waikato group,” provides information and assistance to landowners near wetland areas.
Environmental Waikato is working with owners of key ecological sites to form partnerships to protect wetlands including: fencing off native vegetation from stock, planting native trees along river edges or catchments, and protecting native forests.

Loss of habitat due to a land clearance for farmers, controlled fire, weeds (old man’s beard) and possums. Mice and rats compete with native species for food by eating seeds and insects. All these introduced species are unfortunately on the New Zealand mainland. Human colonization has resulted in the extinction of more than 50 species. Several hundred of the remaining species are expected to be lost in the next 50 years. The Department of Conservation administers 30% of New Zealand’s land area in a series of protected areas, reserves and national parks. The Department also manages native species under the Wildlife Act 1953. Some of the endangered species include: the Moa, Tui, Weta, Blkack Robin etc. What is being done: Scientists and researchers are trying to educate people, saving habitats by trying to get rid of weeds. Plant native trees, build tracks and fences, put up signs to protect ecosystems, getting rid of pests (Old Man’s beard, possums) and making your garden native friendly to encourage native species that have lost their habitat. The threatened species trust helps many endangered animals including the kiwi bird, the kakapo, the takahe, native frogs etc by seeking and managing corporate sponsorship and acts as a forum for discussion on this and conservation issues. Some of New Zealand’s threatened animals include the: Northern Tuatara, the three kings skink, the gold- striped gecko etc.

The Tiritiri Matange island, located 30km east of Auckland, is by far one of the most important and exciting conservation projects. The island is 220 hectares, and was stripped of 94% of it’s native bushland. Between 1984 and 1994, volunteers have planted 250,000- 300,000 trees and now the land is 60% forested. The remaining 40% is grassland and is used for the takahe. All mammalian predators have been eradicated and a number of threatened species and endangered birds have been introduced.

What can individuals do? Greenpeace encourages individuals to lobby deforestation, don’t purchase wood products unless it’s stewardship council certified or eco timber, reduce paper use and avoid buying ancient forest products, grow native plants in your backyard, remove pests, also make a donation to green peace who is trying to ensure that the government increases its effort t stop illegal logging.

New Zealand's landscape

New Zealand has over 15,000km of of coastline. The sand in the North Island is dark with it being comprised chiefly of iron. The North region of the South island has more beautiful sandy beaches but the coastlines around the rest of the South Island tend to be rugged and wilder.
Over millions of years, alluvial deposits (eroded from the mountains by rivers) formed the vast Canterbury Plain in the South Island and a number of smaller plains in the North. These alluvial plains contains some of New Zealand’s most fertile and productive farmland.
The North Volcanic Plateu has extensive ignibrite (pumice rich pyroclastic flow) it extends from Rotorua to Mt. Ruapehu. In the North, the land is very fertile, whereas in the South the land is forested. In the east the land is barrent and the alpine climate is harsh and bare.
The compression and collision of the palte edges in the North Island form the Biburingi Trench. 75% of New Zealand’s surface consists of mountains and hills. The subduction boundary causes the Pacific plate to subduct underneath the Australian plate which contains the North Island. To the South of the island, the situation is reversed. In the North Island, this causes the Rimultaku range across the north island. This process also causes intense volcanic activity that the North Island is famous for. In the South Island, the mountain building process (smashing of the two plates) form the Southern Alps.

Volcanic activity in New Zealand

New Zealand lies on the rim of the Pacific Plate and the Australian- Indian plate. The collision of this plate causes high mountains to rise. For example, in the South Island, the converging boundary- collision between these two plates has created the Southern Alps Mountain Range. In the North Island, one tectonic plate sliding under another has created a subduction boundary and is the result of volcanic activity. This is why regions like Rotorua and the Central Plateau receive Geothermal activity. The volcanoes in the Central Plateu erupt regularly, as recently as 1996 and 1995. Lake Taupo is New Zealand’s largest volcano. The lake lies ontop of a massive calderas that has the power to move 110 cubic kilometres, compared to Indonesia’s Krakatoa which can only manage to move 8 cubic kilometres.
The Auckland is also made up of volcanoes (although in this region, the eruptions of the volcanoes are much more smaller) but it has been 600 years since it’s last explosion. Aucklansd is the largest and most populous city, if a volcano were to erupt, it would wreak immeasurable havoc. Rotorua contains many thermal reserves, mud pools, hot springs, geysers, thermal rivers, boiling lakes, fumeroles and volcanic terraces. Some of the potential hazards that volcanoes bring to New Zealand are: ballistic full, lava extrusions, volcanic gasses (sulfur), ash falling and suffocating people, volcanic earthquakes and mudslides.
The probability of a volcano affecting New Zealand is low (now.) However, it is expected that in the future, the probability of a volcano erupting will dramatically increase. The instiute of Geological and Nucleur Science (organisation) is regularly monitoring the nature, magnitude and frequency of past earthquakes. The organisation is constantly updating hazard maps to indicate areas vulnerable to lava flows and ash fall. The organisation is also developing emergency management techniques for use in the community if a volcano were to erupt. GNC is also designing volcano surveillance systems and analyisng the reliance of engineering (reliability of roads, bridges, communication linesetc if a volcano were to erupt.)
The Taranki Regional Council has a volcanic strategy that describes the roles and responsibilities for volcanic response and describes the “ground rules,” “for all participating agencies.”
The Massey University has conducted regular reports, monitoring seismic activity at MT Taranki.

New Zealand's Climate

New Zealand has mild temperatures, moderately high rainfall, and many hours of sunshine throughout most of the country. New Zealand’s climate is dominated by its high mountains and the sea. These mountain ranges, combined with the ocean that surrounds New Zealand heavily influence the climate. New Zealand does not have a large temperature range, and lacks the extremes found in most continental climates. However, the weather and temperature can suddenly change- if a cold front or tropical cyclone blows in. It mainly snows in mountain areas, although the east and south of the South Island experience some snow in Winter because New Zealand is located in the Southern Hemisphere. There may be a sequence of a few days of fine weather and clear skies, and then separated by days of unsettled weather and heavy raining.
One of the major impacts of climate change in New Zealand is that there is a fluctuation in rainfall patters, higher rainfall in the West, less in the East. There are also more frequent weather extremes like droughts and rainfall. Rising sea levels and melting glaciers.